| Historians
and their Cut-n-Paste Scholarship
The
rash of plagiarism among historians writing for both academic
and popular markets has taken a lot of people by surprise.
That professional historians could usurp their sources without
any apparent twinge of guilt thwacking their collective conscience
suggests that this rash is more than just a skin-deep affliction.
Historians ought to know better than that! A historian is
more than just a re-compiler of pre-existing texts. Using
other historians' interpretations, word for word, is nothing
more than shoddy *scholarship* which bears much resemblance
to the sorts of pilfering going on among modern day romance
novelists.
Aren't
historians supposed to go back to the original sources? The
original texts and documents upon which recorded history is
based? Six-figure book deals and lust for slices of the popular
market seem to have superceded some very basic rules underlying
honest scholarship. "Clearly, popular history will always
sell, even when its authors have been proved to be cheats"
(Peter Charles Hoffer, Past Imperfect). How many
other historians have forgotten these basic rules, neglecting
to cite their sources as they (and their "research assistants"--how
convenient of an excuse!) engage in such convenient methods
of cut-n-paste historical scholarship!
...
...
Profiles
in Plagiarism: History
________________________________________________________________________________
|
| Stephen
Ambrose
|
|
| Profile: |
HSTRY-2002-SA |
| Name:
|
|
| War
on Plagiarism Threat Level: |
   
Orange: High Risk
|
| Occupation: |
Historian--consultant,
author, professor (deceased)
|
| Allegations: |
Plagiarism
discovered in one book to begin with, The Wild
Blue, followed by further discoveries of plagiarism
in a number of other books including Crazy Horse
and Custer, Citizen Soldiers, Nixon: Ruin
and Recovery . . .
|
| Results: |
Reputation
as a history writer called into question; Popular
market share for history books unaffected
|
| Known
for: |
Churning
out popular
history books at a rapid pace; Acclaimed as a "one
of the leading historians of our time" who wrote
"definitive" works on important historical
events; Historical consultancy for movies such as Spielberg's
Saving Private Ryan; Plagiarism scandal which
broke in 2002
|
| Overview: |
Dubbed
as a "history factory" for the pace at which
he could produce his history books, the now deceased
Stephen Ambrose's career as a respected historian and
author of popular books on important historical events
and people took a drubbing when his modes of textual
composition were closely analyzed beginning in 2002.
After The
Wild Blue was found to contain passages plagiarized
from the works of other historians, further discoveries
of plagiarism in his other books called into question
his reputation as a historical scholar.
That Ambrose
could produce texts for popular consumption was never
in doubt. But the scholarly community--particularly
other historians--gasped and then gawked at the blatent
thievery, the sucking of colleagues' "lifeblood"
as if he were a textual vampire.
Numerous media
outlets publicized the details of Ambrose's plagiaristic
misdeeds and the pattern of unacknowledged derivation
which characterized the popular historian's modus
operandi which included employing his children
in the textual composing process.
Ambrose, now
deceased, denied the plagiarism charges at the time,
but did admit using other's work in an internview with
the New York Times: "I am not out there
stealing other people's writings. If I am writing up
a passage and it is a story I want to tell, and this
story fits, and a part of it is from other people's
writing, I just type it up that way and put it in a
footnote."
Re-use of existing
material has a long tradition in historical scholarship.
But without question, ex-appropriation of the exact
wording formulated by another author requires more than
a footnote. Verbatim use of another author's language
requires use of little marks of punctuation known in
Britian as inverted commas, in France and elsewhere
as guillemets (more like little arrows before
and after a quote), and in the US as quotation
marks.
Conventions
for the use of punctuation to indicate verbatim quotation
have a lengthy history reaching back to when printing
was first introduced in Europe, and extending back even
further to the discoursal norms which writers and producers
of texts have used since antiquity to indicate their
indebtedness to those scholars who have gone before.
Historians
who sidestep the conventions involving the use of "quotation
marks" to indicate verbatim quotation put themselves
at risk of drawing the ire of--and provoking jibes from--those
readers who uncover their slipshod scholarship.
References
End
Profile HSTRY-2002-SA
|
...
...
________________________________________________________________________________ |
| Iris
Chang
|
|
| Profile: |
HSTRY-1997-IC |
| Name:
|
|
War
on
Plagiarism
Threat Level: |
|
| Occupation: |
Best-selling
author and popular historian
|
| Allegations: |
"[S]imple
carelessness, sheer sloppiness, historical inaccuracies,
and shameless plagiarism"(T.M. Kelley) in Chang's
book The Rape of Nanking
|
| Results: |
Rape
of Nanking continues to be a bestseller; Chang
suffered from depression and committed suicide in
2004, although it remains pretty well certain that
this was not related to any criticisms of her book
|
| Known
for: |
Works of
history addressing the Japanese occupation of China,
the experiences of Chinese immigrants in the US, and
the development of China's missile program; Organization
of Chinese American Women named her National Woman of
the Year; "a role model for young Chinese Americans"
|
| Overview: |
Historian Stephen Ambrose said
of Iris Chang: "She may be the best young historian
we've got, because she understands that to communicate
history you've got to tell the story in an interesting
way. She uses those vital storytelling rhythms."
Chang's abilities as a popular historian were evident
from the start in her first book, Thread of the
Silkworm, which traced the development of China's
missile program through telling the story of Dr. Tsien
Hsue-shen.
Chang's second book, The Rape of Nanking, documented
the Japanese assualt on the citizens of Nanking during
World War II, and her next book, The Chinese in
America, chronicled the history of Chinese immigrants
in the US.
Described by San Francisco Superior Court Judge Lillian
Sing as "a real woman warrior trying to fight injustice",
Chang was working on yet another bestseller-in-progress
when she took her own life in Los Gatos, California.
Also described as "passionate" and "articulate",
Chang will be sadly missed both in the US and in the
communities of Nanking (C. Burress, "Chinese American
Writer found dead in South Bay"). Prior to committing
suicide, she had been suffering from severe depression,
which some have speculated as being related to her deep
emotional involvement in the horrifying details of the
war atrocities which she had devoted so much of her
life to studying.
It was with Chang's second book that a number of controversial
issues and accusations were raised. The Rape of
Nanking, although generally acclaimed by the media,
was criticized by some experts as exhibiting "simple
carelessness, sheer sloppiness, historical inaccuracies,
and shameless plagiarism" (T.M. Kelley).
These are quite serious charges to be leveled against
an immensely popular historian such as Chang. Yet Timothy
M. Kelly states from the outset of his review
that he is not interested in making an "attack
[on] Chang personally or . . . tak[ing] issue with her
politics or agenda." After this statement, Kelly
goes on to give a rather thorough documentation of the
criticisms leveled against Chang's Rape of Nanking,
concluding with constructive suggestions for revision
of the work so as to correct the deficiencies.
Kelly clearly takes issues with the overwhelmingly positive
and glib endorsements of The Rape of Nanking,
disagreeing with these over-rated reviews which are
nearly "all long on praise and virtually void of
negative remarks." He issues a stern rebuke to
such shallow critiques, accusing the mass media of being
"incredibly irresponsible" followed by "and
they need to be told so."
After taking a deep breath at these bold and frank assessments,
readers of Kelly's review
will find a clearly organized and thoroughly documented
critique of the four main areas with which Kelly takes
issue as far as The Rape of Nanking:
1. Careless
errors
2. Sloppiness
3. Historical
inaccuracies
4. Shameless
plagiarism
While reading
The Rape of Nanking, Kelly states that it was
"[q]uite by accident" that he came across
Chang's insufficiently acknowledged derivation from
David Bergamini's Japan's Imperial Conspiracy,
and he attempts to "demonstrate a clear pattern
of wholesale and unacknowledged borrowing" from
Bergamini by citing instance after instance of "parallel
passages" in the two works.
In Kelly's view, Chang's occasional citation of Bergamini's
work does not absolve her of wholesale appropriation
of extensive passages from Japan's Imperial Conspiracy,
and he ponders whether this might be a strong indication
of further mis-use of sources and plagiarism within
The Rape of Nanking. He ranks Chang's work
as being "merely of rough draft quality" hastily
rushed to press in time for the 60th anniversary of
the Nanking massacre, and he suggests that a "completely
revised edition" is needed to address the work's
serious deficiencies.
Other critics, too, have alluded to the questions concerning
the "accuracy and balance" of Chang's writings.
But they have also highlighted the importance of Chang's
works in reminding readers--particularly Chinese American
readers--of the historical significance of events such
as the Japanese assault on Nanking, provoking renewed
calls for redress of grievances and payment of reparations
by Japan to the victims of this horrendous episode in
Sino-Japanese relations.
Sadly, the passing on of Iris Chang has extinguished
any hope for the revisions called for by Kelly in his
critique of The Rape of Nanking. The death
of this popular Chinese-American author has left behind
swirling controversies and troubling questions which
remain unanswered. Was Chang's suicide related at all
to the accusations of plagiary? For now, it does not
seem so. Were her depictions of the Nanking assault
completely accurate? Given that plagiary was discovered
in Chang's work, might there be further issues of credibility
and research integrity which have yet to be discovered?
References
End
Profile HSTRY-1997-IC
|
...
...
________________________________________________________________________________ |
| Donald
Cuccioletta
|
|
| Profile: |
HSTRY-2001-DC |
| Name:
|
|
| War
on Plagiarism Threat Level: |
Yellow: Elevated Risk
|
| Occupation: |
History Professor,
formerly Interim Director of the University of Plattsburgh's
Institute on Quebec Studies
|
| Allegations: |
Plagiarism
in a book on L'américanité et les
Amériques
|
| Results: |
Discharged
from one academic post, removal from position as Interim
Director of the University of Plattsburgh's Institute
on Quebec Studies
|
| Known
for: |
American
history and world events scholarship
|
| Overview: |
Donald
Cuccioletta was working at two universities, the University
of Quebec, and the State University of New York at Plattsburgh,
when another history professor found apparent instances
of plagiarism in Cuccioletta's book on L'américanité
et les Amériques. Evidently, Cuccioletta
lifted passages from Do the Americas Have a Common
History, a work authored by Columbia University
historian, Lewis Hanke.
As a result
of these allegations, Cuccioletta was dismissed from
his position at the University of Quebec, and he was
also removed a short time later from his position as
Interim Director of Plattsburgh's Institute of Quebec
Studies. Whether further consequences will result from
this plagiarism remain to be seen.
References
End
Profile HSTRY-2001-DC
|
...
...
________________________________________________________________________________ |
| Doris
Kearns Goodwin
|
|
| Profile: |
HSTRY-1987-DKG |
| Name:
|
|
| War
on Plagiarism Threat Level: |
Red: Severe Risk
|
| Occupation: |
Historian,
Author, previously professor at Harvard University
|
| Allegations: |
Plagiarism
of source materials in The Fitzgeralds and the
Kennedys
|
| Results: |
Allegations
of plagiarism widely circulated, significant monetary
settlement paid to Lynne McTaggert, author of Kathleen
Kennedy: Her Life and Times, from
which Kearns Goodwin borrowed most extensively--although
she continues to maintain that she's "absolutely
not" a plagiarist
|
| Known
for: |
History books;
various
achievements and awards including the Women's Professional
Achievement Award, a Radcliffe Award;
"Democratic insider" in the presidential administrations
of L.B.Johnson and W.J.Clinton, assisting in defense
of the latter during the impeachment process(P.C.Hoffer,
Past Imperfect); most recently remembered for
the great scandal caused by her being one of the many
historian-plagiarists increasingly circumventing scholarship
norms
|
| Overview: |
Handwritten,
schmandwritten! Longhand, schmonghand! Doris Kearns
Goodwin's explanation that her longhand notes were to
blame for shoddy scholarship just doesn't cut it!
First she accuses
another author of plagiarizing portions of The Fitzgeralds
and the Kennedys, and then she finds out--big surprise!--that
she herself is being accused of the very same thing
in the very book she accused Joe McGinniss of lifting
passages from in 1993.
The allegations
were quickly picked up by most major media outlets,
and as a result of these allegations Kearns Goodwin
was dis-invited from some speaking events, dropped from
television programs, and forced to pay a significant
sum of money--the exact amount has never been revealed--to
the author from whom she appropriated quite extensively,
Lynne McTaggert, author of Kathleen Kennedy: Her
Life and Times.
The undisclosed financial settlement with McTaggert
as well as Goodwin's membership in the liberal academic
establishment seem to have exacerbated the difficulties
for Goodwin. Particularly, the fact that she was a "Democratic
insider" in the presidential administrations of
L.B.Johnson and W.J.Clinton, and also the fact that
she assisted in the defense of President Clinton during
the impeachment process, brought her into the kill-zone
for well targeted conservative criticism. There was
a definite political aspect of the accusations against
this member of the liberal academic elite. Republican
politicians even took potshots at their liberal quarry
during sessions of the U.S. Congress(P.C.Hoffer, Past
Imperfect).
In spite of
the plagiarism allegations, Goodwin Kearns has denied
that she ever plagiarized ("absolutely" not!),
and has continued to do quite well financially with
lucrative speaking engagements and book contracts, although
the public jibes against her scholarship continue to
surface now and then (see reviews of her work at Amazon.com
for examples).
Moral--"Let
he/she who is without plagiaristic sin . . . "
References
End
Profile HSTRY-1987-DKG
|
...
...
________________________________________________________________________________ |
| Kitty
Kelley |
|
| Profile: |
HSTRY-2004-KK |
| Name:
|
|
| War
on Plagiarism Threat Level: |
Yellow: Elevated Risk
|
| Occupation: |
|
| Allegations: |
Plagiarism
of several passages in her book Family: The Real
Story of the Bush Dynasty
|
| Results: |
$5 million
lawsuit for damages
|
| Known
for: |
Unauthorized
biographies of Frank Sinatra and Nancy Reagan
|
| Overview: |
Known
for her biographies detailing the lives of important
figures such as Frank Sinatra and Nancy Reagan, Kitty
Kelley has been accused of lifting material from another
author in writing her book about the "Bush Dynasty".
The passages
in question are alleged to have been lifted from Glynn
Wilson's article about President Bush's service in the
National Guard in Alabama. The article was published
in the Southerner Daily News, and Ms. Kelley
allegedly lifted passaged directly from this article
in writing her book.
Both Kelley
and her publisher deny the allegations.
References
End
Profile HSTRY-2004-KK
|
...
...
________________________________________________________________________________ |
| Rashid
Khalidi
|
|
| Profile: |
HSTRY-2005-RK |
| Name:
|
|
War
on
Plagiarism
Threat Level: |
|
| Occupation: |
Columbia
University's Edward Said Chair of Arab Studies; Director
of The Middle East Institute
|
| Allegations: |
Unacknowledged
derivation and "compilation" in an Internet
article entitled "Jerusalem, A Concise History"
(link),
written for the website of the American Committe of
Jerusalem (re-named as the American Taskforce on Palestine)
|
| Results: |
Confined
so far to Internet chatter and a blogosphere buzz;
Austin Quigley of Columbia University responded by
initially suggesting the plagiarism allegations were
of "malicious" intent
|
| Known
for: |
Ideological
extremism and anti-Israeli rhetoric in the university
classroom, including--according to student reports--intolerance
of student dissent and abuse of power/position
|
| Overview: |
Columbia
University's Edward Said Chair of Arab Studies stands
accused of plagiarism by Internet bloggers at Solomonia.com
and the History
News Network. Allegedly, Professor Rashid Khalidi
lifted content in the "writing" of an Internet
article on the history of Jerusalem ("Jerusalem,
A Concise History")posted on the website of
the American Committe of Jerusalem, an organization
which Khalidi served as President in the past. Today,
this organization has been re-named as the American
Taskforce on Palestine.
Dialoging bloggers and historians reported that Professor
Rashid Khalidi seems to have lifted material for re-use
from a previous article by Kamil Jamil el Asali, formerly
of the University of Jordan. When asked about this possible
instance of plagiarism, Dean Austin Quigley of Columbia
seemed to suggest that the plagiarism allegations were
of "malicious" intent.
Khalidi's outspoken, anti-Israeli rhetoric is well known,
and it was the reason for his being dropped from a program
developed to educate New York City public school teachers
about the Middle East. His controversial rhetoric is
without a doubt responsible for the strong opposition
from students and pro-Israel activists, and his rhetoric
seems to have also provoked a re-analysis of his scholarship.
For now, the American Committee on Jerusalem has removed
the Rashid Khalidi byline from the article in question,
replacing it with the more truthful phrase, "Compiled
by ACJ from a variety of sources." This is a sign
of a textual retreat. With this neat little revision
to their web content, both ACJ and Khalidi have distanced
themselves from claims to authorship for the article
"Jerusalem, A Concise History", and in so
doing, they seem to have tacitly admitted the validity
of the plagiarism allegations (see the original byline
in a web
archive of the article).
Oppositional origins of these allegations notwithstanding,
a closer investigation would seem to be warranted. As
bloggers have noted, this was not a peer-reviewed journal
article which has been called into question, and there
is a palpable discomfort with how easily plagiarism
allegations can be quickly publicized via the Internet
"blogosphere".
If plagiarists had their way, the plug would be quickly
pulled on such blogging just as quickly as the ACJ byline
was revised upon surfacing of the plagiarism allegations
against Khalidi. But these bloggers have every right
to exist. They aren't going to go away. And the online
accusers might even include a few of Khalidi's own colleagues
and compatriots--perhaps in the employ of Mossad, perhaps
with a personal grudge to settle with Khalidi, or perhaps
of the minority pacifist leaning ilk looking for the
day when truly peaceful co-existence between Palestinians
and Israelis will arrive.
References
End
Profile HSTRY-2005-RK
|
...
...
________________________________________________________________________________ |
| Joe
McGinniss
|
|
| Profile: |
HSTRY-1993-JM |
| Name:
|
|
| War
on Plagiarism Threat Level: |
Green: Low Risk
|
| Occupation: |
|
| Allegations: |
Doris Kearns
Goodwin alleged McGinniss had derived material for
The Last Brother from one of her works
|
| Results: |
In an ironic
twist to things, Kearns Goodwin herself was found
to have plagiarized in her book on The Fitzgeralds
and the Kennedys
|
| Known
for: |
Nonfiction
writing
|
| Overview: |
When
Doris Kearns Goodwin accused
Joe McGinniss of borrowing too much from her work on
The Fitzgeralds and the Kennedys, little did
she realize that she would face accusations of plagiarism
relating to this very same book.
The allegations
against McGinniss seem to have had little effect on
his career as a writer and they pale in comparison to
the fallout surrounding the Kearns Goodwin case.
References
End
Profile HSTRY-1993-JM
|
...
...
________________________________________________________________________________ |
| Stephen
B. Oates
|
|
| Profile: |
HSTRY-1993-SBO |
| Name:
|
|
War
on
Plagiarism
Threat Level: |
|
| Occupation: |
Former Professor
of History at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst;
Biographer
|
| Allegations: |
Plagiarism
in biographies of Abraham Lincoln; Martin Luther King,Jr.;
William Faulkner
|
| Results: |
Use of a
"plagiarism machine" operated by NIH (National
Institutes of Health) scientists Walter W. Stewart
and Ned Feder to detect parallel language passages
in Oates' books and source texts; A formal complaint
to the NIH by Oates about this "abuse" of
a government position by Feder and Stewart results
in their reassignment and confiscation of alleged
plagiarism data; An investigation and adjudication
process initiated by the AHA (American Historical
Association) result in years of wrangling and a controversial,
un-committed ruling on the Oates case followed by
a decision not to get involved in any more such cases
of alleged plagiarism due to resource constraints
|
| Known
for: |
Biographies
of important American figures; Fighting back feistily,
creatively and resourcefully against a well-organized
plagiarism inquisition
|
| Overview: |
The
case of plagiarism involving Stephen B. Oates marks
an important turning point in the war on plagiarism,
for it was this case that marked the first use of a
"plagiarism machine" being used in 1993 to
detect word-for-word language lifting by an author,
the results capturing the attention of the public and
professional communities alike.
Since this first application of computing technology
as a plagiarism-detection aid, the software used for
such detection of similar strings of text has become
widespread, spawning a new industry which capitalized
on the power of digital processing to expose academic
cheats.
Venture startups such as Integriguard, Glatt Plagiarism
Detection Services, Turnitin, MyDropBox, EVE (Essay
Verification Engine), and so on, have ushered in a new
era of academic invigilation of the writing process
for students and professionals.
For Stephen B. Oates, the software program written by
W.W. Stewart marked another stage of a nightmare adjudication
process investigating his alleged plagiarism and misuse
of sources in his biographies of Abraham Lincoln, William
Faulkner, and Martin Luther King, Jr.
Working from their NIH office with their "plagiarism
machine", Feder and Stewart scanned the text from
Oates' biography on Abraham Lincoln to begin with, finding
multiple instances of unattributed (i.e. no quotation
marks used), word for word copying from the source texts
used by Oates.
As Feder and Stewart have observed, mere side-by-side
passages of parallel texts still require human judgement
to determine whether a charge of plagiarism is valid
or not. Indeed, this is still one of the concerns educators
have with such "plagiarism detection" technology.
A machine or a software program can identify matching
chunks of text, but it still requires a human to look
at those matches to determine whether there are false
matches, whether quotation marks and citations have
been incorporated, and whether there might be other
explanations for the "intertextuality" which
has been identified.
Oates' concern was with the entire process, what he
viewed as an "Orwellian" star chamber investigation
by the American Historical Association (AHA) which he
claimed had no jurisdiction since he was not a member
and had thus not participated in the ratification or
election processes. He was also concerned that Feder
and Stewart, being untrained in the historical writing
process, lacked the sufficient expertise needed to evaluate
charges of plagiarism which others had raised prior
to use of the "plagiarism machine".
He must have felt rather singled out by the use of this
new technology on his case alone by two scientists working
for the government at NIH. And so, questioning the authority
of the government-salaried Feder-Stewart duo to single
out a private citizen for calibration of their new "machine",
he filed a formal complaint which resulted in the "un-plugging"
of this so-called "plagiarism machine" and
a re-assignment of Feder and Stewart to a different
location. Their work as self-proclaimed "fraud-busters"
and plagiarism sleuths on the government's dime came
to a halt.
But the controversy continued. More than 10 years after
the plagiarism allegations against Oates first surfaced
(1990-91), the History News Network featured another
round of accusations, recriminations, self-defense,
and more of the side-by-side parallel passages of identical
text. Oates chose for his title a past-tense reflection,
"I Stood Accused of Plagiarism", as an introduction
to his "Nightmare Tale of Ruthless Accusers, A
Misused 'Plagiarism Machine,' An Orwellian Star Chamber,
an Unscrupulous Verdict, and Hopeless Confusion About
Definitions" (2002).
Feder and Stewart responded with examples of language
lifting in Oates' books, observing that Oates chose
to defend himself with the "permissive standards"
of Alexander Lindey (Plagiarism and Originality,
1952) rather than standards such as those of the MLA.
The fraudbusting duo do concede in this exchange that
"it is not possible to be certain that plagiarism
is the explanation for every instance of copying without
adequate attribution", but they hold firm to their
position with a concluding question: "Oates should
say flatly whether he copied the passages that Burlinghame
identified, or not. And if not, how does he account
for the similarities? Just a coincidence?"
David J. Garrow,
in his review of Peter Charles Hoffer's Past Imperfect:
Facts, Fictions, Fraud--American History from Bancroft
and Parkman to Ambrose, Bellesiles, Ellis, and Goodwin,
references the Oates case, quoting Hoffer's assessment:
"[Stephen Oates' challenge] was still an embarrassment
to the Professional Division [of the AHA]." A number
of years after the Oates plagiarism fiasco, and not
necessarily as a direct result of this particular case
of alleged plagiarism, the AHA decided in 2003 to abstain
from any further involvement in questions of plagiarism
or professional misconduct by historians, a "retreat
from professional responsibility" in the opinion
of scholars such as Hoffer.
In "A Heartbreaking Problem of Staggering Proportions"
by Richard Wightman Fox, the situatedness of plagiarism
allegations within the "culture wars" is explored.
As Fox explains, "The news [on plagiarism cases]gets
amplified further because it is so useful in the ongoing
culture wars."
But Fox seems
rather wishy-washy in his explanations, having done
a U-turn in his thinking on the Oates case. He basically
absolves Oates of the plagiarism allegations in approving
of Oates' composing style: "gather[ing] the fragments
of past historical writing and forg[ing] them into a
new work with a passion and fire all your own. Plagiarism
or not, With Malice toward None is an original
book." In this same article, Fox states, "I
can see the twenty-two historians' implicit argument
for not fetishizing quotation marks and for restricting
plagiarism to cases in which one author does not credit
another author at all" and he makes a convincing
case on the importance of using quotations marks to
indicate verbatim quotation.
The bottom line is this. Had Stephen B. Oates--or many
other scholars in his position--opted to use those small
yet vitally important marks of punctuation known as
quotation marks, the lengthy controversies and years
of bitter recriminations might have been avoided altogether.
References
End
Profile HSTRY-1993-SBO
|
...
...
________________________________________________________________________________ |
|
